#471 — The End of History, Revisited

In this episode of Making Sense, Sam Harris engages in a deep conversation with political theorist Francis Fukuyama, revisiting the ideas from his seminal work, The End of History and the Last Man. Fukuyama clarifies that 'the end of history' does not mean the cessation of events, but rather the convergence of global development toward liberal democracy and market capitalism as the dominant political and economic model. He reflects on the current global moment, acknowledging the impressive rise of China’s authoritarian, quasi-market system while expressing concern about the erosion of American democracy and the fragility of liberal institutions. The discussion turns to the concept of liberalism, defined as a system grounded in the rule of law, constitutional checks and balances, and individual rights, distinct from economic free-market ideology. Fukuyama warns that both the right and left have deviated from classical liberalism—neoliberalism on the right and identity politics on the left—creating self-defeating dynamics that threaten social cohesion and democratic stability. He argues that liberalism’s openness and tolerance make it vulnerable to subversion by illiberal forces, including ethno-nationalism and identity-based grievance politics. The conversation concludes with concerns about the rise of anti-Semitism, the erosion of pluralism in Israel, and the moral and political crisis within American politics, particularly under the current administration.